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Microsoft SQL Server Business Intelligence Development Beginner's Guide | Packt - Cumulative update
Microsoft sql server 2014 business intelligence development pdf free. Microsoft SQL Server 2014 Business Intelligence Development Beginner's Guide Sample Chapter
Many computers directly support subroutines by providing a type of jump that "remembers" the location it jumped from and another instruction to return to the instruction following that jump instruction. Program execution might be likened to reading a book. While a person will normally read each word and line in sequence, they may at times jump back to an earlier place in the text or skip sections that are not of interest.
Similarly, a computer may sometimes go back and repeat the instructions in some section of the program over and over again until some internal condition is met. This is called the flow of control within the program and it is what allows the computer to perform tasks repeatedly without human intervention. Comparatively, a person using a pocket calculator can perform a basic arithmetic operation such as adding two numbers with just a few button presses.
But to add together all of the numbers from 1 to 1, would take thousands of button presses and a lot of time, with a near certainty of making a mistake. On the other hand, a computer may be programmed to do this with just a few simple instructions. The following example is written in the MIPS assembly language :. Once told to run this program, the computer will perform the repetitive addition task without further human intervention. It will almost never make a mistake and a modern PC can complete the task in a fraction of a second.
In most computers, individual instructions are stored as machine code with each instruction being given a unique number its operation code or opcode for short. The command to add two numbers together would have one opcode; the command to multiply them would have a different opcode, and so on. The simplest computers are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions; the more complex computers have several hundred to choose from, each with a unique numerical code.
Since the computer's memory is able to store numbers, it can also store the instruction codes. This leads to the important fact that entire programs which are just lists of these instructions can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer in the same way as numeric data. The fundamental concept of storing programs in the computer's memory alongside the data they operate on is the crux of the von Neumann, or stored program, architecture. This is called the Harvard architecture after the Harvard Mark I computer.
Modern von Neumann computers display some traits of the Harvard architecture in their designs, such as in CPU caches. While it is possible to write computer programs as long lists of numbers machine language and while this technique was used with many early computers, [h] it is extremely tedious and potentially error-prone to do so in practice, especially for complicated programs.
These mnemonics are collectively known as a computer's assembly language. Converting programs written in assembly language into something the computer can actually understand machine language is usually done by a computer program called an assembler. Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run. Unlike natural languages , programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise.
They are purely written languages and are often difficult to read aloud. They are generally either translated into machine code by a compiler or an assembler before being run, or translated directly at run time by an interpreter. Sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques.
Machine languages and the assembly languages that represent them collectively termed low-level programming languages are generally unique to the particular architecture of a computer's central processing unit CPU.
Although considerably easier than in machine language, writing long programs in assembly language is often difficult and is also error prone. Therefore, most practical programs are written in more abstract high-level programming languages that are able to express the needs of the programmer more conveniently and thereby help reduce programmer error.
High level languages are usually "compiled" into machine language or sometimes into assembly language and then into machine language using another computer program called a compiler. It is therefore often possible to use different compilers to translate the same high level language program into the machine language of many different types of computer.
This is part of the means by which software like video games may be made available for different computer architectures such as personal computers and various video game consoles. Program design of small programs is relatively simple and involves the analysis of the problem, collection of inputs, using the programming constructs within languages, devising or using established procedures and algorithms, providing data for output devices and solutions to the problem as applicable.
As problems become larger and more complex, features such as subprograms, modules, formal documentation, and new paradigms such as object-oriented programming are encountered. Large programs involving thousands of line of code and more require formal software methodologies. The task of developing large software systems presents a significant intellectual challenge. Producing software with an acceptably high reliability within a predictable schedule and budget has historically been difficult; the academic and professional discipline of software engineering concentrates specifically on this challenge.
Errors in computer programs are called " bugs ". They may be benign and not affect the usefulness of the program, or have only subtle effects. But in some cases, they may cause the program or the entire system to " hang ", becoming unresponsive to input such as mouse clicks or keystrokes, to completely fail, or to crash. Bugs are usually not the fault of the computer.
Since computers merely execute the instructions they are given, bugs are nearly always the result of programmer error or an oversight made in the program's design. Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the s.
The U. In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the Internet. The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer.
Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer.
Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high-tech environments, but in the s the spread of applications like e-mail and the World Wide Web , combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like Ethernet and ADSL saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous.
In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate and receive information. A computer does not need to be electronic , nor even have a processor , nor RAM , nor even a hard disk. While popular usage of the word "computer" is synonymous with a personal electronic computer, [l] the modern definition of a computer is literally: " A device that computes , especially a programmable [usually] electronic machine that performs high-speed mathematical or logical operations or that assembles, stores, correlates, or otherwise processes information.
There is active research to make computers out of many promising new types of technology, such as optical computers , DNA computers , neural computers , and quantum computers. Most computers are universal, and are able to calculate any computable function , and are limited only by their memory capacity and operating speed.
However different designs of computers can give very different performance for particular problems; for example quantum computers can potentially break some modern encryption algorithms by quantum factoring very quickly. There are many types of computer architectures :. Of all these abstract machines , a quantum computer holds the most promise for revolutionizing computing. The ability to store and execute lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely versatile, distinguishing them from calculators.
The Church—Turing thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility: any computer with a minimum capability being Turing-complete is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform.
Therefore, any type of computer netbook , supercomputer , cellular automaton , etc. A computer will solve problems in exactly the way it is programmed to, without regard to efficiency, alternative solutions, possible shortcuts, or possible errors in the code.
Computer programs that learn and adapt are part of the emerging field of artificial intelligence and machine learning. Artificial intelligence based products generally fall into two major categories: rule-based systems and pattern recognition systems. Rule-based systems attempt to represent the rules used by human experts and tend to be expensive to develop. Pattern-based systems use data about a problem to generate conclusions.
Examples of pattern-based systems include voice recognition , font recognition, translation and the emerging field of on-line marketing. As the use of computers has spread throughout society, there are an increasing number of careers involving computers.
The need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has spawned the need for many standards organizations, clubs and societies of both a formal and informal nature. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Automatic general-purpose device for performing arithmetic or logical operations. For other uses, see Computer disambiguation.
Computers and computing devices from different eras. Main articles: History of computing and History of computing hardware. For a chronological guide, see Timeline of computing. Main article: Analog computer. Main article: Stored-program computer. Main articles: Transistor and History of the transistor. Main articles: Integrated circuit and Invention of the integrated circuit. Further information: Planar process and Microprocessor.
See also: Classes of computers. Main articles: Computer hardware , Personal computer hardware , Central processing unit , and Microprocessor. Main article: History of computing hardware. Main articles: CPU design and Control unit. Main articles: Central processing unit and Microprocessor. Main article: Arithmetic logic unit. Main articles: Computer memory and Computer data storage. Main article: Computer multitasking. Main article: Multiprocessing. Main article: Software. Main articles: Computer program and Computer programming.
Main article: Programming language. Main article: Low-level programming language. Main article: High-level programming language. This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. July Learn how and when to remove this template message.
Main article: Software bug. Main articles: Computer networking and Internet. Main article: Human computer. See also: Harvard Computers. Glossary of computers Computability theory Computer security Glossary of computer hardware terms History of computer science List of computer term etymologies List of fictional computers List of pioneers in computer science Pulse computation TOP list of most powerful computers Unconventional computing. The containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book.
In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals; these numerals were finally formalized as numbers. Eventually the marks on the outside of the containers were all that were needed to convey the count, and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count.
Schmandt-Besserat estimates it took years. All of the architectures listed in this table, except for Alpha, existed in bit forms before their bit incarnations were introduced. Although the control unit is solely responsible for instruction interpretation in most modern computers, this is not always the case. Some computers have instructions that are partially interpreted by the control unit with further interpretation performed by another device.
For example, EDVAC , one of the earliest stored-program computers, used a central control unit that interpreted only four instructions. All of the arithmetic-related instructions were passed on to its arithmetic unit and further decoded there.
These so-called computer clusters can often provide supercomputer performance at a much lower cost than customized designs. While custom architectures are still used for most of the most powerful supercomputers, there has been a proliferation of cluster computers in recent years. However, this method was usually used only as part of the booting process.
Most modern computers boot entirely automatically by reading a boot program from some non-volatile memory. An x compatible microprocessor like the AMD Athlon 64 is able to run most of the same programs that an Intel Core 2 microprocessor can, as well as programs designed for earlier microprocessors like the Intel Pentiums and Intel This contrasts with very early commercial computers, which were often one-of-a-kind and totally incompatible with other computers.
Interpreted languages are translated into machine code on the fly, while running, by another program called an interpreter. Computer hardware may fail or may itself have a fundamental problem that produces unexpected results in certain situations. For instance, the Pentium FDIV bug caused some Intel microprocessors in the early s to produce inaccurate results for certain floating point division operations.
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From SQL Server onward, the product is supported on x64 processors only and must have 1. The RTM version is Microsoft makes SQL Server available in multiple editions, with different feature sets and targeting different users. These editions are: [8] [9]. The protocol layer implements the external interface to SQL Server.
TDS is an application layer protocol, used to transfer data between a database server and a client. Initially designed and developed by Sybase Inc. Consequently, access to SQL Server is available over these protocols.
Data storage is a database , which is a collection of tables with typed columns. SQL Server supports different data types, including primitive types such as Integer , Float , Decimal , Char including character strings , Varchar variable length character strings , binary for unstructured blobs of data , Text for textual data among others.
In addition to tables, a database can also contain other objects including views , stored procedures , indexes and constraints , along with a transaction log.
A SQL Server database can contain a maximum of 2 31 objects, and can span multiple OS-level files with a maximum file size of 2 60 bytes 1 exabyte. Secondary data files, identified with a. Log files are identified with the.
Storage space allocated to a database is divided into sequentially numbered pages , each 8 KB in size. A page is marked with a byte header which stores metadata about the page including the page number, page type, free space on the page and the ID of the object that owns it.
The page type defines the data contained in the page. This data includes: data stored in the database, an index, an allocation map, which holds information about how pages are allocated to tables and indexes; and a change map which holds information about the changes made to other pages since last backup or logging, or contain large data types such as image or text.
A database object can either span all 8 pages in an extent "uniform extent" or share an extent with up to 7 more objects "mixed extent". A row in a database table cannot span more than one page, so is limited to 8 KB in size. However, if the data exceeds 8 KB and the row contains varchar or varbinary data, the data in those columns are moved to a new page or possibly a sequence of pages, called an allocation unit and replaced with a pointer to the data. For physical storage of a table, its rows are divided into a series of partitions numbered 1 to n.
The partition size is user defined; by default all rows are in a single partition. A table is split into multiple partitions in order to spread a database over a computer cluster. Rows in each partition are stored in either B-tree or heap structure. If the table has an associated, clustered index to allow fast retrieval of rows, the rows are stored in-order according to their index values, with a B-tree providing the index. The data is in the leaf node of the leaves, and other nodes storing the index values for the leaf data reachable from the respective nodes.
If the index is non-clustered, the rows are not sorted according to the index keys. An indexed view has the same storage structure as an indexed table. A table without a clustered index is stored in an unordered heap structure. However, the table may have non-clustered indices to allow fast retrieval of rows.
In some situations the heap structure has performance advantages over the clustered structure. Both heaps and B-trees can span multiple allocation units. Any 8 KB page can be buffered in-memory, and the set of all pages currently buffered is called the buffer cache. The amount of memory available to SQL Server decides how many pages will be cached in memory.
The buffer cache is managed by the Buffer Manager. Either reading from or writing to any page copies it to the buffer cache.
Subsequent reads or writes are redirected to the in-memory copy, rather than the on-disc version. The page is updated on the disc by the Buffer Manager only if the in-memory cache has not been referenced for some time. Each page is written along with its checksum when it is written. When reading the page back, its checksum is computed again and matched with the stored version to ensure the page has not been damaged or tampered with in the meantime.
SQL Server allows multiple clients to use the same database concurrently. As such, it needs to control concurrent access to shared data, to ensure data integrity—when multiple clients update the same data, or clients attempt to read data that is in the process of being changed by another client.
SQL Server provides two modes of concurrency control: pessimistic concurrency and optimistic concurrency. When pessimistic concurrency control is being used, SQL Server controls concurrent access by using locks. Locks can be either shared or exclusive. Exclusive lock grants the user exclusive access to the data—no other user can access the data as long as the lock is held.
Shared locks are used when some data is being read—multiple users can read from data locked with a shared lock, but not acquire an exclusive lock. The latter would have to wait for all shared locks to be released. Locks can be applied on different levels of granularity—on entire tables, pages, or even on a per-row basis on tables. For indexes, it can either be on the entire index or on index leaves. The level of granularity to be used is defined on a per-database basis by the database administrator.
While a fine-grained locking system allows more users to use the table or index simultaneously, it requires more resources, so it does not automatically yield higher performance. SQL Server also includes two more lightweight mutual exclusion solutions—latches and spinlocks—which are less robust than locks but are less resource intensive. SQL Server also monitors all worker threads that acquire locks to ensure that they do not end up in deadlocks —in case they do, SQL Server takes remedial measures, which in many cases are to kill one of the threads entangled in a deadlock and roll back the transaction it started.
The Lock Manager maintains an in-memory table that manages the database objects and locks, if any, on them along with other metadata about the lock. Access to any shared object is mediated by the lock manager, which either grants access to the resource or blocks it.
SQL Server also provides the optimistic concurrency control mechanism, which is similar to the multiversion concurrency control used in other databases. The mechanism allows a new version of a row to be created whenever the row is updated, as opposed to overwriting the row, i. Both the old as well as the new versions of the row are stored and maintained, though the old versions are moved out of the database into a system database identified as Tempdb.
When a row is in the process of being updated, any other requests are not blocked unlike locking but are executed on the older version of the row. If the other request is an update statement, it will result in two different versions of the rows—both of them will be stored by the database, identified by their respective transaction IDs.
The main mode of retrieving data from a SQL Server database is querying for it. The query declaratively specifies what is to be retrieved. It is processed by the query processor, which figures out the sequence of steps that will be necessary to retrieve the requested data.
The sequence of actions necessary to execute a query is called a query plan. There might be multiple ways to process the same query. For example, for a query that contains a join statement and a select statement, executing join on both the tables and then executing select on the results would give the same result as selecting from each table and then executing the join, but result in different execution plans.
In such case, SQL Server chooses the plan that is expected to yield the results in the shortest possible time. This is called query optimization and is performed by the query processor itself.
SQL Server includes a cost-based query optimizer which tries to optimize on the cost, in terms of the resources it will take to execute the query. Given a query, then the query optimizer looks at the database schema , the database statistics and the system load at that time.
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